The New York Herald Newspaper, January 2, 1854, Page 6

who had been elected Vice President, occupied the | Presidential chair. Polk then followed. Taylor's @eath, after his short Presidency of sixteen months, devolved his duties upon Vice President Fillmore, | whose successor, Perce, bas just entered upon the duties of Chie! Magistrate. The national policy of the eleven administrations has greatly varied, and the «lternate fluctuations of | ‘the balance that has weighed our gains and loases a3 | ® people, as it has been held, first by one and then by another of the chosen chief representatives of our Yeading porties in politics, have produced a salntary excitement of the public mind, which has led to able discussions of important topics, and to an iutel- ligent, practical acquaintance with the precepts of political wisdom - In 1800, the motives of party feeling between the federalists Jemocrats of that day were derived from the real or supposed influence of British or French predilections. At present, our political par- ties owe their origin to purely domestic causes, irre- spective of any a»tual or even alleged foreign bias, Our prevailing pational policy has been peace with all other nations. We have, however, daring the ara been involved in several wars. ovoked and repeated injuries done by Tripolitan cruisers to onr-mercbant ships in the Mediterranean, led to a short war with Tripoli, which was declared in 1801, and terminated by a peace in 1806. The annual tribute that had long been exacted by the Barbary powers fron alt Christians navigat- Ing the Mediterranean sea, America was the first to refase peremptorily. And her freedom on the high seas she boldly vindicated and maintained. The refusal of Great Britain to repeal her famous Orders in Council, issued in 1806 and L811, and to waive her alleged right of search and impressment, together with the commission of actual hostilities by a British frigete, cceasivued the adoption of bellize- rent measures on our part; to the building of Mr. Jefferson’s unfortunate gunboats; to his embargo which rednced our exports from @ hundred and eight millions in 1807, to tweniy-two and a half millions in 1808, and the issports from one hundred and thirty eight millions to fifty-seven millions of dollars; and then, too, his non-intercourse law in 1810. Two years after, the wanton attack made by the British sloop-of-war Little Belt upon the American frigate President, awakened general indignation, and in- duced Mr. Madison, in 1811, to recommend to Con- gress that the republic “should be placed in an at- titude to maintain by force its wounded honor and essential interests.” War was declared. Several land battles followed on our Canadian fron- tier, and at the South; and naval engugemen's took place on the ocean and on Lakes Erie and Cham- plain. This war, the policy of which roused to the highest pitch of excitement the antagonistic political parties of the country, would be a painfal subject of reflection, but for some memorable and cheering facts. The disappointment occasicned by ourarmy’s failure in the projected conquest of Canada, and the mortification of their allowiag the British troops to enter the city of Washington, and there play the part of vandals, by becoming incendiaries of the President’s House and the Capitol, wish its natioaal library, were amply atoned for by our signal victory won at the battle of New Orleans, and by the re- peated brill aut achievements of our navy. The treaty of Ghent, in 1514, gladdened our people’s hearts with peace. * The Jawless conduct of the Algerines, in plander- ing our sbips in the Mediter.a.ean, led to the neves- sity of an iutiietion on eur port, by which the Dey was forced to make the amplest reparation for the outrages committed. Our Indian wars, with the Creeks, in 1814; the Beminoles, in 1818; Black Hawk and his tribe, ia 1832; and the Seminoles again, under their daring chief Osceola, from 1839 to 1844, bave been among the iast formidable efforts to be expected on the part of the red men, to withstand the reaistlesas march of civilization. Our lxte war with Mexico, occas'oned by her re- fasing the annexation of Texas, gave occasion to the battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de Ja Palma, and Mon- terey, of Buena Vista, Sacramento, Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, and Contreras, of Molino del Rey, Churubus co, Chepultepec, and, after a rapid succession of Splendid victories, tothe occupation of the city of Mexico by our srmy under General Scott. The war terminated, by our treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, in 1848, and by our purchase of New Mexico and Upper California. A restless desire has long been felt by some of our citizens for the acquisition of the most alluring of the West Indies, the island of Cuba. It was with the view of ¢ffecting this that two expeditions under Gen. Lopez sa\'ed for the Cutan shores. But the story of the ill-fated enterprise is recorded in the melancholy fate of Lopez, and of many of his comrades, cap- tured and piblicly garroted or shot by the infuriated Cuban authorities. As to the destinies of Cuba, however, the end is not yet. The expedition which Miranda, grandson of the Governor of Csraceas, fitted out at New York, im 1806, for the conquest of his country, and for establishing a republic there, wae not less disas- trons; and the Mackenzie abortive enterprise to aid the insurrection in Canada, in 1837 and 1938, at one time threa‘en:d to involve our government in war with Gre.t [ritaia. Public alarm was created in 1832, by fearfal symptows cf internal strife, produced by the nulliti- cation measures in South Carolina; and in 1542, by Dorr’s rebellion in Rhode Island, But the excite- ment wh'ch these troubles created soon passed away. In the year 1804, the death of Gen. Hamilton was oceasioned by a due! with Aaron Burr, then Vice President of the United States; and this melaacholy event bereaved the country of one of its brightest or- naments, the devoted personal friend of Vashington, and a man pre eminently distinguished for his intel lectual e:dowmexts and political sagacity. Th story of Burr's residence on Biennerhasset island, in the Ohio river, of his intrigues there, and of his alleged treason, has been recounted by Wirt with glowing eloquence The slavery questioa hus long been agitated among us with intense feelicg. The Fogitive Slave bill, passed in 1850, for the protection of the slaveholder, Was thought by many in our free States to be un- constitutional, bnt no internal and sectional .strifes have arrested the progress of our prosperity, or quenched the spirit of patriotism among us. This was admirably illustrated in the years 1824 and 1525, by the memorable visit of Lifayette, the nation’s guest, who received, in addition to the nw ional present of $200,000 and a township of lasdin Florida, the more precious gift of a united and free people’s enthusiastic and heartfelt gratitude for his services in our revolutionary war. The national sympathy is continually alive w the sofferings of all the enslaved and oppressed States of the old world, and a ready response is given to every call for help against the exactions of oppress jon, or the demands of tyranny. Our people have recognized and beautifully exemplified the great truth, that Man is ane, And he bath one great heart. And thus we (oel, With a gigantic throb, across the rea, Kach other's rights and wrongs ‘The national benevolence was prompted by this emotion when the dreadfol famine prevailed at the Cape Verd Islands, (in 1831 and 1832.) where, in a ‘twelve month, 30,000 of the 100 000 inhabitanta per: isbed of starvation. Of the 26,000 of the Island of Ban Antonio, 11,000 died. New York, Philadelphia, Portland, and other cities of our oountry, immedi- ately sent cargoes of provisions to the relief aud joy ‘of famisbing thousands. Ireland, also, on account of the Jovs of the potato crop, in 1845 and 1846, became @ region of wretcuedness, where famiae spread hag- gard misery, and starved its tens of thonsands. Again the sympathies of our people sent numerous cargoes of breadstuffs to the relief of this piteous extremity of want. The politica! and physical sufferings of Greece, Hangary, and other nations, have met a like response, in the benevolent spirit of our free institu ‘sions, MBXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. ‘There bp prevailed in these countrice the moet unbar py disquietude, from the epoch when, in 1815, thry became in whole or in part independent of the Spanish crown. The purposes of Santa Anna have long been manifest in Mexico, where he has, within afew weeks, been proclaimed Emperor, with the compellation “His Serene Highness.” There appears, however, to be little hope of his long basking in bis present sunsbine. Mexico has, in itself, the elements of a po then a million of square miles, anda population of iore than eight millions of inhabitants, this ill-fated country, not without many generous aspirings after civil and religious liberty, is still unable to secure a well ordered government, on stable principles. Cen- tral America centinues, by the last accounts, to be the scene of political and social pertarbations, a3 restless as the waves that beat and break upon its shores, SOUTH AMBRICA. In,the Southern portion of onr continent there have been, since the century commenced, many and preat changes. The republic of Colombia was constituted in 1819, by the union of New Granada, Venezmela, and Quito- Bolivar, called by bis friends “ the South American Washington,” and “the Liberator,” was its first President. In 1828, when he assumed supreme power, Venezuela withdrew from the Union; and in 1831, Quito or Ecuador also withdrey;-se that the political trine was then resolved into its original ele- ments.” But each is possessed of a vast territory, a Tummerous population, andgmmense resources; New Granada, 380,000 square miles, and two and a half lion of people; Vent zuela, 770,000 square miles, and a million and a~quarter of inhsbitauta; and Ecuador, which lies on both sides of the equator, hus 325,000 square miles, and a population of 600,- 000. The whole region abounds in precious stones and in the precious metals. The Guianss are the only countries ia South Ameri ca subjectto any of the crowned heads of Europe. British Guiana has 76,000 square miles, and 130,000 in’abitarts; Duteh Guiana,38,500 square miles, and a posulation of 7,000; and French Guiana, 21,600 square miles, and 30,000 inhabitants The Pern Bolivian confederacy, comprising Pera and Bollvis, resclved itself, in 1824, into the separate republics of Peru and Bolivia. Pern became independ entof Spain, im1821. 1t hasan area of 524,000 square miles, and a population ofa million and a half. Bo- livia bas a domain of 318,000 square miles, and a population of almost two millions. » Brezil, occupying nearly two fifths of the whole continent of South America, with two and a quarter million of square railes, and seven and a-balf mil- lion of inbabitsuts, sffurds the oaly example of any part of our continent being ruled by a king in per son. John the Sixth, King of Portugal, pressed by the demands of Napoleon, transferred his court from Lisbon to Brazil, in 18@8, and ruled there until the year 1821, when, after the Portuguese revolution, and the convocation of the cortes, he retarned to Li-bon, leaving the crown-prince ia Brazil The Prince, however, affer the separation of the Brazil- ian government from Portugal, became the Em- peror Pedrothe First. During the insurrection in 1831, when his troops joined with his subjects to op- pose his arbitrary measures, he abdicated in favor of his infant son, Pedro the Second, and retarned to Ecrope. Buenos Ayres, Parsgusy, and Uraguay, lately united, are now agais sepirate ani independent re- publics. Buenos Ayres threw off the Spanish yoke in 1816, end adopted, in 1819, a constitution, mo- delled after our own, In 1826 it took the name of the Argentine Republic. Upon the resignation of Rivadavia, in 1528, the Congress was dissolved, and the republic, in 1830, submitted to the dezpotism and savage ciuelty of Rosas. Its area is 927,000 square miles, and its population is a million and a half. Psraguay, with its 74,000 square miles, aud 260,000 inhabitants, became a republic in 1813. The next seer, theasnguinary despot, Dr. Francia, was created dictator, and he became another Nero in cruelty. He died in 1840, at the advanced age of four score years. Uraguay, with 120,000 aqnare miles, and 140,000 inhabitants, has had a severe struggle to maintain its independence of the Argen- tine Republic. The republic of Entre Rios has an area of 82,000 square miles, and 80,000 inhabitants. Chili, which, in 1809, when the “ Man of Destiny” in Europe was harrassing Spain, began to encour- age 8 revolutionary spirit, threw off the Spanish yoke in 1828, and has since become as independeat republic, with an area of 144,000 square miles, and a population of million and a quarter. THE WEST INDIES. ince the commencement of our century, the West Indies have evinced but little sympathy in the progress of our race. Cuba, Porto Rico, and a few smaller islands, are the little left of all of Spain’s once vast possessions in the New World’which Columbus gave to Castile and Leon. From their unfortunate ralation to 0 anile and imbesile a government as Spain, they cannot nope for better things than they now have. Under more favorable auspices, they could not fail to reach a high point of political and social prosperity. They are yet to enter on their mission. By the abolition of slavery in the English West Indies, in 1835, and in the French islands in 1948, a million of African slaves and mulattoes were declared free. Hayti, from the time of its declaration of inde- pendence in 1801, has continued to present abhorrent scenes of blood. In 1846, the eastera portion of the island became a separate goverament, under the name of the Dominican Republic, The Haytien ne- gro and mulatto chief magistrates are styled “Em- perors;” ond, amidst massacre and assassinations, they have loog been playing their fantastic tricks, Hayti cow has an annual revenue of about four mil. lion of dollars; an army of blacks, numbering more than 40,000; and a militia of 113,000. The salary of the “Emperor” is $40,000. EUROPE, Since the nineteenth century dawned upon the continent of Europe, its States bave passed through numerous and great vicissitudes, There bas been a continual conflict of great anta- gonistic principles—prerogat've and privilege, aris- tocracy and democracy, srbitrary power and consti- tutional liberty, the spirit of the dark ages and the spirit of progress. In France, Napoleon, created First Consul in No vember, 1799, pursued his career of military glory; obtained his powerful sway in Italy; subdued the pride of the haughty German States; and became, to Rurope and the world, the hero of his time. He was erowned Emperor of the French in 1804; but the transcendent power of his will was confessed at the court of almost every government of Europe. It was not until 1813 that his bright star, so long in the zenith, began to decline. But then soon followed his abdication, his exile at Elba, bis reign of a hundred days; the great battle of Waterloo; his banishment to St. Helens, and his death in 1821. The resto ration of the Bourbon dynasty continued un- til 1530, when the expelled Charles the Tenth gave place to the restored dynasty of Orleans, represented by Louis Philippe, King of the French, who, in his turn, was compelled to leave his throne avd country, which @ow became the theatre of anar- hy and blocd. Louis Napoleon, now the Emperor Napoleon the Third, has succeeded, by the magic of his name and pedigree, and with consummate skill, to exercise an influence in the councils of Earope that promires to rival, if not excel, that of the illas- trious progenitor whose proud name he bears. Since the battle of Waterloo, Europe has been the scene of no general war. In 1820 the revolation of Italy failed in its aim, and the Spanish revolutionary popular movements ended in the restoration of Fer- dinand the Seventh. Greece, in establishing her in. deperdence, had a fierce and bloody straggle* trom 1821 to 1828. Belgiam, which bad been united with Holland in 1814, broke its bonds in 1830, and is now free. Poland, the unfortunate, has been less success- fal in her noble and valorous efforts, made in 1814 and 1846—six hundred of ber nobles massacred in 1846 by the peasontry and tenants, at the wicked, cruel instigation of the ruthless Austrian government —and the republic of Cracow, with its 140,000 in- rfol State; but, with its vast realm of more | habitants, annexed to the Amstrian direct violation of the treaty of Vienna. Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, having rebelled against the Bultan, and acquired the power, without the name, of Emperor of Egypt, the world by the brilliancy of his exploits, his extraordinary career with his tragical death, im 2822. In Italy, the leading political events of fifty years have been at- tempts to form a confederacy of States against Aus- tria; the defeat aud abdication of the King of Sar dinia; the Pope’s refusal to sanction the popular wish for Italian nationality; the assassination of the Pope's Prime Min‘ster, Rosi; the flight of his Holincas to Hl Gaeta, in 1646, disguised as a servant; the proclam:- tion of a republic, in the Pope’s absence; the over- throw of this republic, in 1849, by the French army under Oudinot; the new government by a trium- virate of cardinals, until the Pope’s return, 1850, after his fifteen months absence from the Eternal City; the re-establishment of the inquisition, and of the dominion of the Pontiff; and the consequent extirpa- tion of almost every vestige’of constitutional govera- ments in Italy. England preserves her constitution inviolate, and her government has continued to dispense its bless- ings as heretofore. ‘The revolutions in, Vienna and Berlin, and the de- termined ard sanguinary Hungarian struggle, are yet fresh in the recollection of every intelligent ob- rerver of political events. But for Russia, Hungary would now be bleased with political freedom. Prussia, with many privileges above other Euro- pean States on the Continent, enjoys the constitu. tion granted by Frederick William the Fourth. But the aspiratious in Europe after constitutional free- dom, in our acceptation of these words, have for a time been quenched ; and the'fair promises of 1848 have been grievously dissppolnted. It should be borne in mind, however, that great truths and nobie sentiments have been promulged far and wide, and that the seed so plentifully sown may, to the joy of all freemen, one day yield a plentiful harvest. The present movements of Rossia in relation to the Turkish government are every day more and more increasicg the apprehension of a general troublous state of things on the continent of Europe: and the eyes of Europe and of the world are now di- rected toward the democratic emperor, t> see the part which he is to act in the eventful drama. ASIA. In Northern Asia, the Russian autocrat has been making new accessions to his monster domain, by his war, in 1826, with Persia, and with Khiva; and his ambition has led him to make depredations in the Caucasus and in Bokhera, and is now inducing him to aim at crushing Turkey. But his schemes are not unobserved by those who hold the balance of power. In Southern Asia, the British empire in India has been greatly extended, and now contains a popula- ‘tion of a hundre@ millions. England, in 1841, com- pelled China to open five of her porta to British com- merce, and pay eleven millions of dollars indemnity. A wonderful political event bas, since that time, oc- curred in the Celestial Empire. It is a revolution, having for its aim a change of dynasty, the suppres- sion cf idolatry, and the esablishment of Christian faith and worship. AFRICA. In Northern Africa many striking political changes have occurred. Egypt has seen the iron rule of the Mamelakes destroyed by the energy of Mehemet Ali Pasha, aid a new and greatly im- proved order of things established. The marauding depredations of the Barbary Powers have been re- pressed, so that the tribute too long exacted of all Christians is no more asked. Algiers, since 1830, has been a colony of Frauce, and it promises, at no distant day, to contribute largely to supply cotton for the French markets, The Cape of Good Hope, which, in 1806, was taken by the English from its Dutch proprietors, was confirmed to England, in 1814, by the Congress of Vienna; bat the bordering savage tribes have long continued fiercely to repel the advance of civ- ization. Along the western coast of Africa are flourishing colonies of free negroes from the United States; aud the political and moral influence of these coloniss, there is good reason to believe, will soon be felt by races that occupy the interior of that\yet unexplored vast terra incognita. New Holland, Van Dieman’s Land, and New Zealand, with other islands in the Soath Seas, colo- ried of Great Britain, have, chiefly diring the last | bas discovered an arctic spot, where the needle as- fifty years, received large acoessions:0 she number of their inbabitants by emigration fron the mother country, until they now have & population of | 28 ofgreat practical importance to the world. Ia more than half a million of souls. Jays and Sumatra are Dutch possessions, and are moe slowly ad- na his system of telegraphs, which, in 1843, was vaneing in improvement than the islaids possessed and fostered by the Anglo-Saxon race, the world’s best colonizers. Japan, there can scarcely be a doult,is destined to become a point of general attraction before the year 1854 shall complete the cireuit o/ its months. POLITIOAL LIBERTY, Duriog the last fifty years political liberty has made remarkable advances. In Hogland the Roman Catholie relief bill, passed in 1829, marked a memorable epoch in the history of religions toleration. The repealof the t@@ and corporation acta, a few years previous, prepared the way for this toleration bill, and heralied its advent. That repeal may be called the Lucifer of religious liberty ia England; and the relief bill the sup, with healing in its beams. Then again, in 1832, was passed the reform bill, still further favoring popular representation; and, deeming that enough had not yet been done, Lord Johfi Russell, as measures show, bas extended the franchise yet further, to his own credit as a profound politician and statesman, and to the glory of the government he so ably condacta and so nobly representa, to the admiration of the freemen of Europe and of the world. In London, there have been several vigorous ef- forts to simplify its present complicated legislative machinery, consisting of four co-ordinate branches— nobles, burgesses, clergy, and peasants, votiug sepa- rately. "Switzerland, which, ia 1800, comprehended 19 republics, now has 22. Belgium is an independent constitutional monarchy. The four free cities of Germany, the Ionian Isles, San Marine in Italy, and Andorra in Spaia, all are repub ics. The galaxy of republica im Central and South America may all be considered sain the transition improvement, and schools are there founded for this purpose, on the parochial system. In Emgland and Treland the cause of popular education calls loudly for legislative measures. In Prussia, soon after the commencement of our century, a well-organized and very effective school system was introduced, which has extended also to many parts of Germany. Bel- gium, Holland, Denmark, and Switzerland, all have good school systems in full operation. France, espe | cially since 1833, has made public instruction a pro- | minent feature of its national policy. Norway and Sweden also have a growing interest in the cause. It is a significant fact that Spain and Portugal, and & large part of Italy, are far behind all the other | States of Europe, not excepting Austria and Russia. The Turkish government, in its energetic and free spirit, has resolved to introduce an admirable system | already adopted, and its college at Bebec, om the ; Bosphorus, is at present in a highly flourishing state. Tn our own country the character of school books bas been much improved. In 1800 there were no elementary books of natural history, physiology, | astronomy, or algebra. “Now these are very nume- rous, and of a high character. THE PRESS. The liberty of the press, in our country, could not well be greater shan it is. The government never interferes with it. paper reading people. In hotels, steamboats, rail- road cars, omnibuses, offices, shops, drawing rooms, and even in the streets, on the way to and from places of business—the newspaper is to be seen in hand, in pocket, or, perchance, in hat; or, in the case of patrons of more than one journal, (and their name is legion,) the friend of the press bears about with him his credentials in a variety of modes, and is never at a loss for an intelligent companion, with news from all quarters of the globe. In 1800, we published about 200 newspapers; by the last census, the number of our newspapers and periodicals amounted, in June, 1850, to 2,800. The aggregate circulation of these is estimated at five millions; and the number of copies printed annu- ally in the United States, amounts to four hundred and twenty-two million six hundred thousand. Four hundred and twenty-four papers are issued in the New England States; in the Middle States, 876; ia the Southern States, 716; and in the Western States, 784. There are 350 daily papers; 150 tri- weeklies; 125 semi-weeklies; 2,000 weeklies, 50 semi-monthlies; 100 monthlies; and twenty-tive quarterlies. i The periodical press employs the pens of many of our ripest scholars; and in the columns of our mewapapers are found, daily, items of important and interesting intelligence, derived from the best sourees, The British colonial periodical literature is as yet comparatively limited; and so is that of Central and South America. ng In England the number of papers issued has in- creased more than fourfold during the fifty-three years past, The present number of papers in Great Britain and Jreland is 605, several of which are edited with great ability. In higher periodical literature, Great Britain is confessedly pre-eminent. On the conti- rent of Eupore, the freedom of the preas varies, ac- cording to the state of civil liberty. SCIENCE. Within fifty years science has originated several of ita most prominent departments, among which are chemistry, meteorology, geology, physical geo- grapby, and electro-chemistry. It has also stepped down from the high pedestal it onee occupied, and is mingling with the masses of msnkiod, performing innumerable and important kind offices for the well- being of communities and individuals. Chemistry has revealed, among many other myste- ries of natare, the identity of chemical and electri- cal action. Organic chemistry now opens to the mind of man a realm of philosophical trath, abound. ing in discoveries of wonderfal phenomena. Among these is the theory, that iron in the venous blood is changed from one to another of its oxides in the Inpga, and resumes in the capillaries its original form. Among the arts to which chemistry has im- parted the knowledge of some of its most pleasing powers is the daguerreotype, promulged by ite ia ventor in 1838. Electricity, magnetism, snd galranism have opexed new worlds for scientific research. Hum- boldt has discovered the magnetic equator, and Ross sumes a perpendicular position. Electromagnetism has disclosed some phenome- 1832, Professor Morse derived from these phenome- brought into use by an appropriation from Congress. This telegraph now traverses 15,000 miles in the range of its operations in the United States. House, with consummate genias and ekill, next invented the printing telegraph. In Prussia telegraph by elec- tricity operates over 1,400 miles; and in England, France, and some other European countries, it is ex- tensively employed. Electro-magnetiam is now the world’s amanuensis. And it has beeome the co- adjutor of astronomy, by its important capability of simultaneously recording, at different and widely separated places, the transits and other celestial phenomena, that could not otherwise be so accurate- ly determined for usefal purposes. It has, more. over, played, very successfully, the police officer, by pureu'ng, in a flash, the refagee from justice. It has also greatly served the interests of trade and com- merce, and is destined to become, more and more, a mighty anxilliary in promoting human progress. Astronomy, since the year 1500, has greatly mul tiplied ite obeervatortes; erected, in 1812, the mural tircle; improve tt» imetruments; increased its cate- logue of stars, and made the first discoveries of aste- roids, until, from time to time, the number has in- creased to twenty-three To these dissl sures it has added the discovery of new eatellites of the known planets; a new planet; a new ring of Saturn; and a great number of new comets, two of which have been discovered in the United States. It has added to its previous scquisitions the knowledge of the movements and of the revolution of many stars, and the determination of their parallax; the movements of systems of stars; and the fact that the sun of cur own planetary system confesses an attraction, by a celestial sympathy, toward a remote but congenial “bright particular star,” which science professes to point out. Optica introduced, in 1851, Dr. Young's theory of Above all other nations, the Americans are a news-' state, The relations subsisting between San Salva- | undulations. avd thus satisfactorily explains diffrao- dor, Nisaragua, and Hondaras, prodnced the result | tion and double refraction. Curious discoveries have of their union asa federal government. Mosquitia, | been made also in circular polarization and dipolari- recently rendered notorious by British claims of the | zation. The reflector of Lord Rosa’ great telescope coast betweem Cape Honduras and the Juan river, | is six feet in diameter; and its focal distance is fifty- bas a territory that does not exceed 28,000 square | four feet. Many of the nebule which to other miles, and has but six thousand inhabitants, a | telescopes have appeared but as star-dust, are, when mixed race of Indians and negroes, over which « | viewed through this monster tabe, a new heaven of Protectorate has been set by the British government. | bright constellations. The European governments without constitutions, Meteorology has revealed some very interesting are Bussia, Austria, Turkey, Naples, the States of | facts, in relation to temperature, and to atmospheric the Chureh, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Dutehies of Germany. POPULAR EDUCATION, The progress of ¢ducation has bean marked by some highly interesting particulars in ite history, since the year 1800. The attention devoted t+ « cause of common and public schools, and to sue ac- cumulation of school fands, in our States, is one of the most attractive oar annals. Norma! schools and infant schools been greatly encouraged. The infant scl was intro- duced among us in 1827. ‘thirty years past female seminaries of a high ordep have been estab- | lished in many of the States. colleges have muitiplied trem twenty-six to bandred and twenty-nine. We have also theological seminaries, thirteen law and forty-three medical schools. Our national sopports two schools—the Military A N. Y., founded at the recor ton, and the Naval Academy, at land, founded in 1842, Jo Beotland the subject of West Point, of Washing- changes; the dew point; the law of rain; the classifi- cation of clouds; and the theory of winds and storms, expecially the investigations of Maury. Geography records, among its recent results, the exploration, in 1804, of the Columbia river, and of the sources of the Mississippi, in 1805 and 1819; ex- plorations of the coasts and of the interior of North, Central, and South America; the discovery, in 1843, of the Great Salt Lake and the great basin of North- ern California. It has explored also the coasts of Australia; the coasts, and the great river of Africa ; Palestine, Syria, Arabia, Nubia, Abys sinia and Egypt; the river Jordan, the Dead Sea, ani Asiatic Russia, It has also collected important in- formation relating to the China and Indian seas, and | the Arctic and Antaractio regions. The great An- | tarctic continent was discovered in 1840. From all | these investigations, physical geography has ealled | arich treasure of phenomena of much scien‘ific im- | portance, and of essential benefit to mankind, arising Mary- | {vom the relations of geography with natue aad ine tory, and especially ite moral relations, #0 admirably dsontion hse | gxbibited by Humbplds and Guyot. @ominions, in | long engaged the attention of the friends of popular | Minerology has acquireda knowledge of this trath, { and which cherish, in an eminent degree, the among others, that the geometrical symmetry and optical properties of crystals, correspond. Geology has offered numerons attractive problems fer solution, and among these the equivalence of strata, and the cotemporaneons elevation of parallel mountain chains, In our own country, our geolo- gists have directed their attention for practical pur- pores te our extensive coal mines. Until the year 1820, the coal trade among us from the Pennsylva- nia; mines’ was unkown. That year, 390 tons were sold! Now the sale is estimated at hundreds of thousands of bushels. The gold of North Caruli- na was first taken to the United States mint in 1814, ‘The gold of California wes first discovered in 1848, Now, already the annual product of the mines is es- timated at{tens of millions of dollars. Native silver, copper, lead, and iron mines also have but recently opened to us their rich treasure. Botany bas substituted the natural system of Jus sieu for the artificial system invented by Linné, and has greatly increased the catalogue of species. The greatest number of plants in the time of Linné was 800" ;jhin 1808 it reached 30,000 ; and it has now reached, 123,000. The distribution of the earth into botanical regions, as to beigh’s and latitudes, is a new topic, full ofinterest. The flora of America is ascertained to be more rich than that of any other continent.» The flora of Eurcpe embraces half of the known species; Asia bas fewer; Australia, fewer still;Rand Africa the fewest. Zoology has increased the list of its species. Of birds,;{there are now 6,000 species ; of fish, 10,000; of mollusca, nesrly 7,000; and of articulata, 300,000. In eachjone of all these species there is beautifully exhibited, what Cuvier has called ‘‘the conditions of its existence.” APPLIED SCIENCE. Among the practical applications of science t> the physical and moral benefit of man, medicine occupies & prominent {place. It bas, by its profound investi- gations, ascertained, and, by its wise experience, learned to employ the means of controlling or pre- venting disease. It bas certainly increased the term of human life. In 1850 about one-half of all cnil- dren, born "reached the age of five years; now, four- fifths survive that period. In 1799 Jenner discovered vaccination; and with our century this wonder- fal preventive began to confer its blessings on the human race. It is to be noted, also, that Hahnemann, the author of homoopathy, published his first treatise on the subject,in 1810. In 1834 there Were butthree homeopathic physicians in our country. Agriculture has effectually availed iteelf of the good offices of vegetable chemistry and vegetable phisiology, and has been taught by them and by three other good friends—natural history, geology, and physical geography—that agriculture, in all her studies and labors, should take science for her handmaid. The employment of steam-power in navigation and in land travel by railroads is peculiar toour century. It was not until the year 1807 that Falton, in spite of, the repeated failures of preceding experimenters, madea trip by steam, on the Hudeon river, to Albany. Now, steamers navigate the waters of almost every region of theearth. In 1838 steamers first traversed the Atlantic. In 1818, for the first time, the waters of Lake Erie were plied by a paddle-wheel, In 1849 & steamship first sailed for California. Lees than half a century has elapsed since Fulton’s first adven- ture was called “Fulton’s folly;” and already steamers constitute, in the public mind and in regard to the national Tesource, an important item in the estimate of naval power. In 1830, at the opening of the Liverpool and Man- chester line, the first locomotive engine moved on 8 railroad. In 1853 all civilized communities are availing themselves of the astonishing facility which railroads afford for trade travel. Among the few na- tions that form exceptions to this general remark, are Spain and Italy, who, in this respect, and also in many other movements of our stirring times, are con- spicuons as laggards. MECHANIC ARTS, MANUFACTURES, TRADE. The industrial arta have derived great facilities from the introduction of machinery. Mechanical agencies are introduced into every branch of indus- try, where the turning of a wheel can facilitate or supersede the exertion of mere muscular power. One of the most conspicuous illustrations of modern meebanic art is aff:rded by the vast britannia iron bridge over the Menai Straits, 1,841 feet long. A train of loaded cars, in passing over it,do not cause a depression of one inch. A specimen of modern coloseal arshitectore, not less wonderful, is the Lon- don Crystal Palace, constracted of iron and glass, 1,848 feet long, and 408 feet wide, covering an area of eighteen acres. - The employment of steam presses in printing, supplies a volume of attractive and aseful know- ledge; and also its employment in each one of the successive steps of paper-making, and whatever is conrected with the issuing of a newspaper or a book. Among the new articles of manufacture intro- duced by our century, may be particularly noted in- dia rubber goods, and the use of india rabber in a great variety of modes that administer to human comfort and luxury,and serve for the preservation of health and life. The manufactare of clocks, also, especially in Connecticut, has attracted universal notice. They are exported to Northern Europe and to China, by hundreds of thousands, annually. The American trade in ice originated in Bosten in 1805; about five hundred vessels are now employed in this trade, for shipping iee to our Southern States, the West Indies, and to Southern Asia. The transmission of merchandise by canals, aud the supply of our large cities with water by means of aqueduets, are one of our centary’s memorabilia. Very few of our canals, now among the chief arte- ries of commerce, were opened prior to the year 1800. In 1800, Philadelphia was first snpplied with water from the Schuylkill. There has been con- structed an aqueduct more than forty miles in length, from the Croton river at Sing Sing to the city of New York, where there has betn built, in the upper part of the city, our great reservoir, cover- ing thirty-five acres. This work was commenced in 1836, and completed in 1842. Boston was supplied in 1848 trom Lake Cuchituate, by an aqueduct fif- teen miles in length. A supply of water is furnished in this way to several other of our cities. Man is thus appropriating to himself, in every way by which mechanic skill can perform, what mechanic ingenuity can invent—the resources of nature. SOCIAL AND MORAL IMPROVEMENT. The advance made in the social and moral im- provement of several of the most influential States of Christendom, since the year 1800, has great'y contributed to promote the highest interests of mankind. . In England, there has been a remarkable mitiga- tion of the extreme severities of the penal code. Law, in general, has been profoundly investigated, and extensively reformed; and never before, since Great Britain became a free people, has the right of free discussion been more highly valued, or more beneficially exercised. Never before, in even that fuvored land, has humanity won such privileges as she now enjoys there. The crying evils of the laws of France fifty years ago—an incongruous mélange, or rather pot-pourri— were remedied by the Code Napoleon. This code, which the Emperor justly regarded as his best gift to France, is based upon the civil law, and embodies well-ordered and comprehensive systems of jurispra- dence. It was promu'ged in 1804, and has ever since been uttering its precepts of sound wisdom and equal justice to the admiration of other European States, to whom it has offered? an admirable model, of which several ef them have already availed them- selves, butin different degrees. The Code Napo- leon is thus exercising a high function in the cause of man’s social welfare. In our own country, the codification of our laws gives prominence to some important priaviples of jerieprodence, which breathe a upirit of trath and justice, Peyoud what has been reoognised before, Abe sentiments and sound morality, that are the and security of our free institutions. Several modern governments, and among themo own, have made admirable pravision for the reac and cheap transmission of intelligence by mail ; at} the system of cheap pcatage has been productive various happy resulta, in social intercourse, and national welfare. Among the auxiliaries and the evidences of tk progress of mankind, are the existing numerous an excellent institutions throughout christendom, for: instruction of the ignorant, the kind care of the a} flicted, and the reformation of the erring. In or: own country, Sunday Schools began their missio| about the year 1810. The first American Asylur for the Deaf and Dumb was opened in 1817, at H ford, Connecticut. The New England Institution f the Blind was incorporated in 1829. Our Lunati Asylums, chiefly if not altogether unknown. betor| the present century, are now numerous and flourish | ing. The Temperance Reform began sinee the cer tury opened. Peace Societies were instituted i 1816 ; and Prison Discipline Societies in 1820. Ver many other kindred institutions, the World’s Sister of Charity, have gone about among us doing goo¢ And World's Fairs, one of the new ideas of the aye. while they have been eminently calculated to mote science and art, have, with a benign infl fostered the fraternity of nations. The fine arte especially in the United States, have received a ney impulse, and may prove to be important to us, no only in embellishing but in exalting social life—thef true aim. It is the observation of Washington, in his Fatt well Address: “Of all the dispositions and habit which lead to political prosperity, religion and mora) ty are indispensable supports. In vain would tha man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should la bor to subvert these great pillars of human happines: —these firm props of the duties of men an citizens. The mere politician, equally with th pious man, ought to respect and cherish therc A volume could\not trace all their connec tion with private acd public felicity. Let -i be simply asked, where is the security for gto perty, for reputation, for life, if the sense of religiow obligation desert the oaths whic are the instramer*; of investigation in courts of justice? And let with caution indulge the supposition that moralit; can be maintained without religion. Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education ot minds of a peculiar structure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality car prevail in exclusion of religious principles.” | From the elevated point of observation to whic these noble sentiments invite us,it is pleasing to look abroad upon our country and the world, and the operation of the principles referred to by our Pater Patrie. Itis pleasing to see the transformm- tion of a whole community like that of the Sandwich Isiands, at the beginning of our eentury debased savages, and to-day a Christian people ‘ing. ane nexation as one of the States of our pron It is pleasing to note the researches of science, ag they call up from their graves in Egypt, Ninevels and Babylon, and otzer lands, the witneszes to tha) historic truth of revelatipn; and as they collect‘and display the relics of the remotest antiquity, and intere pret the hieroglyphios which, for 0 many ages, hava been a mysterious handwriting upon the wall, defy: ing the efforts of the learned to render them gible, And while we are gladdened by the ri} of what has been done for the expansion of - merce, the augmentation of wealth, the of manufactures and agricultars, the progress of science and art, the diffusion of truth, the education of the masses, and the multiplication of popular forms of government, let us behold, in the political fang’ moral changes of che world, the silent operation of great principles, developing a nobler idea than that. of national aggrandisement or a contest of racea” This is the true philosophy of the affairs of mankind’: a8 a great family on earth, with a peculiar work aod, destiny. Let us note principles; and let us refide. that progreas is but at the commencement of ite } career. At the close of our nineteenth century, the hand that will then record the memorabilia of the J age will look upon what we deem stirring rr FF the day. as the desultory efforts of inexp a youth, compared with the achievements of the firag- resolve, high aim, and vigorous energies of the’ world’s manhood, in view of the chief end of hua. existence. . A. D. 1863. Emigration to the United States During the y Year 1853. The following table is taken from the records of thé- Commissioners of Emigration :— iS ‘Nomner oF ARnrvats Derive THe Year 1863, Tote! arrival of aliens. 300,998, and of aliens and citizens, 240,1i4—showing @ ~ Gecreace this year of some thousands. Streets Opened during the Last Year.‘ | During the past year many improvements have beed made by way of opening streets, and creating sew thoroughfares for the city. The following streets have / been opened during the year 1863:— 1284 street, opened from Mount Morris to Third avenue; 624 «Fifth to Bighth avenue. , 120th bs be Fourth to Sixth avenue. 4th avenue, bed Eh i to 136th street. Beekman street, ‘“ Park to Pearl street. STREETS ORDERED TO BE OPENED : 934 street, opened from Fourth avenue to Eat rivar- 8th Fifth avesue to Hadeoa river, Doane * Broadway to Hucson street. 120th bit oa Tenth avenue to Hudson river, 130th 0 “ “ “ . 1Blet “ « “ ” Centra! park ordered to be 0; pened. Park place opened from Chureh st to College place. Bowery opened to Franklia pe iaiy se B Albany atreet, opened from Greenwich street to Broadway, The ot ly street opened, the expenses of which have taxed and paid during the year 1368, is 123d street. Tasee costs are ss follows:— Cont of Counsel to the Corporation. Counsel fee of same.. Commissioner's fee. Clerk hire. ‘* ‘The principal improvement hes been the widening of', Beekman street, which will be now ome of the business streets in the city, It is filled with new granite, stores and large builjings, such as ornament the great< metropolis of the Western world, YEARLY RECORD OF DEATHS. . | Mortality of New York during the Year 1853. ‘We present tolour readers this merning,(the/statistios ¢ the mortality in the city of New York during the pag year, and the registry of the births and marriages Te corded in the office of the City Inepector during the months of July, August, September, October and No- vember, The first two tables exhibit the number of deaths fous various diseases, as reported ineach month. From these it will be seen that during the year 1853, there were 21,920 deaths in this city—showing am increase of 319 om the mortality of 1852. This increase may be attributed, im some degree, to the intense heat of the weather ia. August, when there were 231 deaths from san stroke, There were also 134 deaths from small pox over the mor- tality from the same disease in 1862—the whole number for 1863 being 631, As this is a disease which cam b@ averted by a little precantion, we must regard the mor~' tality in this case as the result of carelesmens or nesleots, and there is little doabt bat that em immense ~ proportion of we deatns frum comeumpuce may bo attributed to the eame cause. ‘Ap weual, we find the mortality among chiliren Sorzy/D