The New York Herald Newspaper, May 7, 1854, Page 7

PLENIPOTENTIARY OF THE Lata: ‘The Minister of Foreign Relations of Peru has the ho- ‘nor to to the note which his Execlluncy the Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten the United States of America addressed to him, dai the 4th of ‘February, in which he “ protests against the interpreta- tion souglit to be given to the said treaty concluded with , in the note addressed to him by the undersigned ‘on the 16th of January; and he also protests against other act, interpretation or construction which ‘would diminish or affect the right of the United States to ‘be placed upon the footing of, and to enjoy all the advan- tages accorded to, the most favored nation, within the into a discussion of the principal points pf this note, it will be permitted to the undersigned to abe Yee snenels ane, the protest addressed to him by ‘ministerial note of the 16th of January Ir) limited solely to answering and satisfying the claim rhich his Ex ddreased to him on the deduced that they were to the claim ‘inter- ‘their simple and literal application: tests ought to be employed only | ‘anegs- violation of a right, or with what is legi! tely due. neither of these conditions are to be are essential to, and inseparable from, an ng that one of them gives to the treaty being character- id by the other as an infraction or a violation. A re- nt example is nted by the question which has for ears been between Great Britain and the United States. His Excellency President Pierce, to the last American ongress, says :— past, Great Britain has so constrned the the convention of the 20th of April, 1818, in fishe on the North to ox- it, ae from some of oly resorted for nearl tanof'o ceabary resorted for nearly ® quar 1 te of that treaty. vn COMMOEy ed in this construc- heir fishermen all the ithout mol y trade bi the nited Si rican provinces, & egotintion has been opened with a fair prospect of a favora- @ result. which his Excellency Mr. Clay cannot ince him that the foregoing reflections egal h each nation interprets in a ferent light the article of the treaty of 1818, neither & paar to the other, nor considers the other a violator, both havo agreed to settle their questions by opening w negotiations. If on requiring the fulfilment of a treaty, one of the rties should arrogate te itself the right of deciding by elf alone upon its genuine meaning, refusing to enter oan examination and discussion, ‘and protesting or ying other means than those recognized by inter- jonal law, then treatios would change their nature; would be converted into sentences, Whish ane power it pronounce upon another a: judge, and the see and principles of equality and independence among ‘tions would be destroyed. oe treaty re any auth ion of the sontra sents it 8] y= general rutes of —{Kiuber. Law of pL, $103 ) ut, putting the most favorable construction upon the of bis Excellency the Envoy Extraordinary, admit- still be no occasion for the protest, ‘admitted by the Peruvian governmont. no other effects, than those which and good grounds upon which ving laid down the f¢ two premises, the proceed to reasons adduced celleney the Envoy Extraordinary and Plenipo- to prove that the’ ‘the case in favor vian government has offi- of the American citizens. Tevoke its decision without the consent of of the United States. of this pretension, his Excellency Mr. Cla} second article of the decree the 15t! rican cit and vessels were a, there could it be hay bjeots and vessels; which arise were removed by official wa with Mr. Tirado, in of the United States, as- rnment could not give a more foresaid third that q il; that in the official communication reg of ween Messrs. Cavalcanti and Tirado the latter vocably the right of American ens and vessels to enter the waters of the zon and its confluents in case they should in admission into those waters; that when re should be collision suont treaties, the oldest ; that Peru ala not carry into effect i] stipulations with Brazil without 'merican citizens; that the ty and decree of April are hot be diminiahed without inflicting injury upon the States. fulfilmentof the treaties and the decree of April, therefore, substantially the two points upon which Ot ‘his Excellency Mr. Clay are founded, and he draws the reasons and arguments contained first portion of his note, to which the under- proposes to reply, expressing the Nya that his lency Mr. Clay, with his acknowledged intelligence well known probity, ‘and the government he repre- , are convinced that the Peruvian government Ftetion to of treaties, but only according to they should be 7 stout justly and cons ; rales and principles of international law; that i resent oceasion the desires of his Excellency and of overnment cannot eee, it is only because © stipulations and powerful reasons that cannot be garded, forbid; and because ft believes that it is not aby tio treaty of 1851, concluded between the two its, to make the demanded of it. note, and in that of the 16th of January, it has jandis shown that ao oN gd has nfringed the treaty with the Uni ‘States. ither does the discover, however dili- he has matter, t clear, Ay bsequel ie cond — Nog decree january, wi govern- with which the Br.zillian e secretary of this re t in which the right is hich his Excellency Mr. Clay consequence of the note of the addressed to Mr. Tirado. However been his opinion in f wor the United States, he what he states he iavolunt or ae- because of the situa. ed, legitimately acquire titles of right which ‘and diminish those that the treaty gare no right can be good against as good a juired by the citizens of the Union to of che Amazon is founded on tho follows that the condition of was the owner thereof, could H, it the treaty Soslared laid, if treat cl ae In the ‘Amazon and Hua ib ld good ins! ted. The provi- iar to any—it was an idea, which did or nation in particular. That eated against from the time could face oe fy n of a or It inter- Mc itaivrent of a, tresty, and diminished by i That decree. ‘was not 9 rational upon them, y of their naable to and ti ‘sovereignty of nations, right to yoda Yate ata sowntcy in regard to their own in- communications between his Excellon- Ge er ‘@Albuquerque and Mr. Tirado, ean as 8 and ‘Trrevooable ition in ibjecta it restricts in nents or concessions, it would be indisy are not decisive, and have no than that of expositions of the parties who are discussing their right; they are the clearing it; but they are not the motel hap bate n act, As was ~ “i ra the rights be- ‘and none others, Clay, does ‘the case appear decided by Mr. Tirado in fs- of the citizens of the United States.” Premises. and heir admission must be reciprocally accepted in order to executable, and to arise in its, they must be set forth in the seapeaere rote- cola: if they refer to the fulfhnent of a treaty, similar formalities must also be observed, as the undersigned has already indicated by quoting Kluber’s doctrine, to which he will add that of fens. He says:— Verbal conferences have only for their object the way of negotiation, and to te its be! stood in writing. Th bei decided, the protecol wiv writin, drawn up, because which is to be regarded | ry notitcation, must be signed | matic, chap. 6, sec. £6.) ; Mr. Webster, Secretary of State of the American gov- ernment, maintained the same principles in his despatch of 8th July, 1852, to Mr. MeCurdy:— No foreign government, sald he, orits roprosontative, can take just offence at anything which an officer of this govern- a e1 Diplo’ no |. (Mane ment may say in his private capacity. Official tions only are tobe regarded me indicating ti and views of the governmont of the United Sts i communications are friendly in their charac ¢ foreign overnment has noright or reason to infer that ‘there is any or to 0 Sther matters as showing | Ament, The undersigned much regrets not having found any memorandum of the agreements, interviews and other | acts which took place between Mr. Tirado and his Excel- Jeney the Envoy Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the United States. Their perusal and explanation would have been sufficient to indicate the terms in which the rights claimed were recognized. In grave subjects, where- always the safest kind of archives. | _ Upon an examination of the official documents on this subject, it is deduced, without tne hiest doubt, that | Mr. Tirado observed a friendly course towards the repre- | sentative of the United States, but promised nothing in rg What has been already stated would be a sufficient re- | | jainder to the observations made by his Excellency Mr. , and to justify the Peruvian government imthe con- | | duet'it has thought it its duty to pursue in the pending question with regard to the navigation of the Amazon. | jut bis Excellency having entered into a full explanation | of the opinions put forth by the undersigned, in his note | of the 1¢th of January, he finds himself called upon to defend them, though {na brief manner. hatever may be the liberal grounds on which the treaty was founded, and the intention there was to con- clude it, it is indispensable, in their application, to cot fine ourselves to the words, and to the natural meaning which the latter have in common use. If, by the third article of the treaty concluded between the United States and Peru, the two parties bound them- selves to extend to their respective citizens the privileges and favors conceded to another nation, it was also de- clared that they ‘should enjoy them gratuitously, if the concession shall have been gratuitous, or for a compensa. tion which shall be fixed upon by mutual consent, if the concession shall have been conditional.” According to this article, before soliciting the favor claimed, it was in- Gispensable to enter into the agreement with regard to the compensation. By the invariable rule of the law of nations, the extension of favors is always reciprocal. Excellency Mr. Clay, knowing the justice of this observation, has said that ‘the United States offered re- ciprocity, by permitting Peruvians to frequent the ports of the Delaware, the James and the Mississippi rivers (which are open to foreign trade,) which does not meet the demand, for it is not an especial favor to Peruvians, in compeneation for another, but a general permission that they enjoy because those ports are open to foreign trade, and they will be admitted into them even without treaties. ‘The word navigation hasa general moaning, and i ble both to seas and to rivors; otherwise it would be neves- sary to stippiate separately ih regard to maritime and fiu- vial navigation: 9 ction which has never been met igation, Americans | and places of ms ooast. In the with in any treaty of eommere may freqnent with thei Porn, e a 4 Americans zo to the Chincha I; ter the ports; therefore band may also enter tho river ae If the Peruvian nego- tistor had had any intontion to excopt the rivers of the re- public, he would have excepted them exprestly. é It is easy to answer conclusively this series of proposi- tions, presented with more brilliancy and pomp than so- lidity, in the note of his Excellency the Envoy Extraordi- nary and Plenipotentiary of the United States of America. Although the word navigation is applied in certain cases to seas, lakes and rivers, this is not sufficient for it to be understood that a general treaty of commerce and navigation includes them all. It is therefore necessary to stipulate separately in regard to river navigation, in order that it may be comprehended within the forms of a treaty, and that it may not be confined to maritime navi- gatlon—a distinction of which there are many examples. e Scheldt was made navigable by the of Munster, concluded between Spain and the Tai Provinces of the Netherlands; the Vistula, by the treaty of Tilsit, signed between France and Russia; in the Copanene of Vienna the navigation of the rivers which in their course divide or cross different States, was arranged. Its articles were to be applied to the navigation of the Po, and also to that of the rivers and channels thro ut the whole extent of ancient Poland, conformably with the final act. The same principles have been ado; for the. navigation of other waters and rivers which divide the Austrian States from Bavaria. many others that might be cited, ‘These examples, and wit ntosey tia Excellency, Mr. Gay, river naviga- tion is not to be supposed nor deduced from a generic word. All writers upon international or maritime law, a commerce and navigation, always 5; of both, ating the one from the other. Inthe treaty with the United States the word rivers, which appears im others, was not included. A positive fact is always moro re than negative iments. ‘When the treaty of 1851 was stipulated, river naviga- tion had not been established in Peru, and even st pre- sent only the initiative therein has been taken; therefore it could not be the object of a treaty, nor considered in the view and intent of the cont: parties. American citizens may frequent their vessels the coasts to which they have a right. Vessels may visit the ports, but not the places; because into these latter, indi- viduals only can be admitted. Who says place docs not always say bank, and say coast, because these subdivi- sions of a territory are liable to the alterations that laws, usages and treaties may have established in regard to them. The Chincha Islands are open to the flags of the whole world, and cannot, without injustice, be closed to American citizens. From all this, it is not inferred that they also have a right to navigate in the internal rivers. If the American negotiator had intended to include them in the treaty, he should have expressly mentioned them therein. In order that what has been stated may have ater force, it will not be superfious to add one remark. By the April decree vessels navigating the Amazon could go oes as far as Nanta, at the mouth of the Ucayali, whic indicated that this river and the Hualaya were closed to If the treat; ‘aed the right to Ame- rieaa citizens to navigate in their waters; his Excel- lency Mr. Clay would have objected to that prohibition; he did not do so, and yet insists upon maintaining the vitality of that decree, which proves that the right to river navigation cannot be deduced from the treaty, but only from a free act of the government, which it may reform or amend. ‘To avoid this argument, his Excellency says that he claims such concession for his fellow citizens, because it ‘Was conceded to Brazil, but without giving in return the reciprocity, or equivalent compensation stipulated by common consent. If Peruvians have the right to navigate the Arhazon, as joint owners throughout its whol tent, they have not the right to enter its tribatari longing to Brasil. Ht cellency Mr. Clay has itted— foreign navigation. ad- That the rivers which arise and flow entirely within the territory of the nation, no portion whereof belongs to foreign ‘power, and in’ which there are no conterminous owners Tight to navigate, belongs in exelusive sove- ty to the State to whom the rivers belong, His Excellency says That 0 Poru for granting tho waters of had it; and, th d to give any penéati It is not in the navigation of the lower Amazon where reciprocity is to be sought, but in the navigation of the internal Brazilian rivers opened to Peruvian citizens by the treaty, and which, as his Excellency has remarked, belong éxciusively to the owner of the territory in which the rivers flow. ‘This reciprocal or equivalent concession has not been accorded in favor of Peru by the American government, and such is readily deduced from the words of the note, in whieh he speaka of {he navigation of the rivers of the United States and of Upper California. zilgives for the navigation of the Amazon $80,000. In order to obtain the navigation of the interior rivers of Peru she concedes to her the navigation of those of Braril, and commerce in an extent of more than four hundred feagues on their banks, situ- ated in the course of the common channel. The United States cannot offer a like compensation, because they could not concede to Peruvians the nariga tion and commerce of the Sacramento and Mississipp without extending thix concession to other nations, which it is not probable they would do. But suppose they did concede it, it would not be a suitable and oqui valent compensation that would ceptable. procity must be real and positive, not illusory. exchange for a real benefit it is necessary to concede another equelly real benefit. If the privileges conceded to the Brazilians were extended to the Americans, the latter would enter upon the enjoyment of real beneiits— not so with the Peruvians, who can derive no benefit from the opening of the American rivers. His Excellency also admits that the central channel of the Amszon is s public inland highway, for each one of the conterminous owners to enter and leave their dominions, and that over that central channel none of the nations has exclusive jurisdiction, since no one of them is the owner of all the waters that compose it. His Excellency, by admitting thie principle, seems to admit the doctrines of the undersigned, that Peru, as = Joint owner or partner, cannot alienate or concede rights which she does not alone toy From the principle which his Excellency has estab- lished, he excludes Brazilian subjects from navigating the upper waters of the Amazon; and that if joint owner- ship exists among the conterminous nations, it a for Brazil in the limits of the empire, and not before, according to the tenor of the secon article of the treaty Peru. The undersigned is of opinion that in common things ench pastner fas a right to enjoy the snme fully and en- tirely, and in the same manner as the other copartners; for the simple reason that each bas contributed to the formation of the general fund & part of his own. Amazon being formed from the rivers of five nations, each and all of them have the right to navigate in the channel as well as in the lower. The rivers of the nations which sre in the upper portion empty their currents into the lower strenms, receiving also with them and their cur- rent a real servitude. In compensation for the channel which they give in their territory for the descent of the y waters, oceasioning them inundations and floods, they acquire the right of navigation of the upper portion, fag thore of this portion have the right to to the asa log would be carried down by the waters. wetite reciprocal service and loan of waters, drains, and sireams constitute the community of Fights, charges. It would, t fore, be an in the upper wigation because ‘they “are oretk tateruatioanl q Ben ay ‘are enjoyed throughout their whole’ex! direct], ovsseed in commen fo atigaion abd fot Ww Ione | a binding obligation. If to the, meaning of written docu: | | tributes inberont to the int ; ai in the interests of nations ure involved, memory is not | Soha chick sea eet cent uses of the joint owners, but not to be conce ted te others without the consent of the whole. This ix’ 2° wise conflicts with the sovereignty of each State, for.’ the common channel neither has sovereignty, which is contradictory of joint ownersh{p. But this jolat owner, sb{p does not hinder one of the States from permitting navigation in its own rivers, _, Your Excellency thinks it superduous to demonstrate that parity between civil servitude [vise iter) (right ot Way) and the right of international transit by a common | pit river is impossible:— States, notwithstanding their independence, recognise im their territory puilic servitudes in favor of others: The df Vieion of servitudes, such as civil law admits and personal, rustic or urh ‘are not ap » tives and negatives, one ride. are not useful 4 reciprocal, although Par trom depriving itself thcrehy. of the) aelt thereby of thy very sovereign nati er, in order that public servitude, that th u @ independent Stat the richt belongs may x ed, independent of the whieh char, Every public servitude is real on both si be not only the right f erereigaty, but also the rights Gene by ei awe, provided the servituéo atthe same ime recognizes the sovereignty over the o1 of thors ome gente. (Law of Nations, second part, title 2, seos. 137 an Pursuing his reflections, his Excellency says:— The Sonca company is not am affair peculiar to the two governments, formed with their funds, and realised for their account, because it appertains solely to private individuals. In the treaty with Brazil it was only stipulated that the Peruvian and Brazilian governments should assist ig five years, with pecuniary means, the first enter- {4 be established, it arra with both governments the respective points to which the steam ‘Vessels should navigaté. The tenor of this article is the most satisfactory explanation that can be given to your Excellency’s reflections. M. Evanjelista Sonza proposed to organize an exclusive company; the Peruvian government noither accepted the proposals nor granted any privilege, confining itself to the test of the treaty. Upon exami this point, his Excellency says that if there be any doubt, it is reduced to knowing whether Peru will give, as an equivalent com- pensation, twenty thousand dollars to the first American company that may be formed for navigating the Amazon, without the government of the United States bei: bound to anything. The undersigned does not think it his duty to reply to this insinuation. Neither the Amazon nor its tributary rivers belonging to Peru, have been nor are yet opened to foreign com- merce, and if Brazilian steamers navigate and trade as far as’ Nanta, it is only the internal trade peculiar to riparians, and to which they have a nght by ‘ll the rea- sons that have been expreased. ‘The declaration made in the second article of the treaty with Brazil, assenting that the navigation of the Amazon must belong exclusively to the conterminous States, does not stipulate nor impose a new obligation: neither has it established a principle; for it is an eternal truth, and of incontestible evidence, that the navigation of the Amazon river belongs to all the nations who con- tribute with their streams to form the common channel. ‘The natural rights of men or of nations are nota subject of compact—they are declared or applied; and go far from the right of other nations interested being disa- vowed in the declaration of the treaty, Peru and Brazil have acknowledged and proclaimed it. ‘If any have pro- mulgated the free navigation of their respective rivers tributary to the Amazon, they will have exercised their rights and their sovereignty over their own territory; but that cannot be extended to the territory of others, and n, it is essent! 8 | to the rivers common to all. The government of the United States has recognized the rights of Brazil and the common rights of the States conteyninous to the Amazon, in an explicit manner; and hence the President said in his message to the last Con- gress:— Several of the South American States are deoply edin this attempt to secure the freo navigation of the Ama. zon, and it asonable to expect their co operation in the dvantages of free commercial intercourse re better understood, moro liberal views ertai: to the common rights of all to interest: among nation: are generally ¢: the free use of those whish nature has provided for international communication. To these more liberal and enlightened views it is boped that Brazil will conform her policy, and remove all unnecessary restrictions upon the e use of mriver which traverses 60 many States and 80 large a part of the continent, ‘The various pretensions or demands of American citi- zens in 1847, 1848 and 1851, for permission to navigate the Amazon and its tributaries, and to establish a line of steamers, prove nothing against what has been said, and still less when it is known that all those demands have had no official character, nor did they merit attention, Against the text of the articles of a treaty, discussions, however full they may be, held weeks after its oonclu: sion, are valueless. Never, since the discovery of America, has there been a want of knowledge that in the interior of our moun- tains and on the shores of the rivers tributary to the Amacon, and of this river itself, there wasa fruitful source of wealth with which nature seemed to favor the South American people. The Congress and governments of the republic have dictated laws and decrees for their exploration, have incurred ex ‘and granted privi- eee. to attract immigration excite and foment indus- trial and commercial interests; but the time had not yet arrived when such beneficial projects were to be realised, and hence they appeared to be forgotten and uncared for until thetreaty was concluded in 1851, ten years after the first steps had been taken by the governments of Peru and Brazil towards @ convention, the object of which was to promote and facilitate the reciprocal trans- actions of the citizens and subjects of both nations upon the frontiers and common rivers; which convention was never ratified, because of the political circumstances of the republic. It leads to nothing to remember that the existin, treaty between Peru and the United States is the fourtl which has been concluded in mga navigation. That of the 30th Noverber, 1836, termi- pated with the expiration of the twelve years limited for ite duration, the Teravian government fulfilling it reli- iously. If complaints and protests were made against it, it was because Don Andreas Santa Cruz, who negotia- ted it, was wanting in legal authority, the republic not being willing to recognise or authorize by its silence the wer of usurpers of t! preme authority, although weds practice it might suffer the consequences. Twice have attempts been made to conclude another, but without effect. @ second is in force. and the govern- ment of Peru will fulfil it and respect. it in the most solemn manner; and if it thinks that some of its articles have not the applicationwhich itis eg pe von them, it is mot hence to be inferred that it misinterprets, infringes or evades them. Of its good faith his Excellen- Cl d to commerce and cy Mr. Clay bas an evidence in the respect which at the resent time it pays to the one concluded with Brazil. e United States form one of the most powerful nations of the world; Brazil is a young State, less strong and werful; and Peru, weak as she is, must yield to the Rores of ber justification, regretting that she cannot fully | satisfy the desires of his Excellency Mr. Clay. It is not to be anticipated that the government of the Union will complain or consider itself aggrieved by the conduct which the Peruvian government has found itself obliged to observe from the necessity of ‘complying with the postive obligations contracted with the empire, which, whatever may be their nature, whether for her | benefit or injury, spring from a treaty which has im- posed inevitable duties upon Peru. Nor would it be worthy of the magnanimity of the American government to dispute with Brazil and Peru a small tbectre to stimulate their activity now that they are emerging from their inertness, with which both have been reproached. American industry and enterprise have the whole world for their field. The undersigned concludes by offering to his Exeel- lency the Envoy Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, Mr Clay, his esteem and respect, and has the honor to scribe himself his obedient, humble servant, JOSE G. PAZ SOLDAN. Medical Gleanings. Dr. Curwen, of the State Hospital for the Insane, in Pennsylvania, ina late report, has somo sensible remarks on the subject of blood- letting in cases of insanity. Dr. C. says that all hospital experience, both in this country and in Europe, has proved that the loss of blood, in any form of insanity, is almost universally attended with un- pleasant effects, prolonging the period of cure, and, in many cases, placing the patient hopelessly beyond the reach of any benefit to be derived from subsequent treat- ment. Insanity is essentially a nervous disorder, and the greatest care should be taken to distinguish between that excitement which ix purely nervous, and the deli- rium caused by inflammatory action. Opium eaters may be interested, though perhaps not entirely to their satisfaction, in the results of reeent acientitic analyses of that article, as given in the London Lancet. ‘Twenty-three samples of gum-opium, as import- ed, were examined, and thirty-two samples of the pow. dered opium. Of the former, only four were pure, the rest being more or less adulterated with OPORPY, capaule, wheaten flour, sand, sugar, and gum. Of the powdered opivm, only one sample was found free of admixture with poppy capeule, flour, and powdered wood. Professor Mattei, of Corsica, proposes a new kind of ture, consisting of two loops, intererossed, and with ends in opposite directions. ‘The end of the vessel is ced between these loops, and constricted by pulling at the ends; or, if it is an entire and undetached trunk which bas to be tied, one loop is first passed aronnd the vessel in one direction, and then the other around it in a contrary direction, taking eare to thread the endsjin such a way around the silk forming the first loop, as to secure the necessary intercrossing. If the veasel is of large size, the ends of the loops are made to have an extra turn upon. cach other. After the vessel is tied, one end of each 100; is cut away clore to the vessel, and the other end is brought out of the wound, the two remaining ends being dispored as nearly as possible in opposite directions. In this Porition they. are allowed to remain until the vossel is obliterated, and then they are removed by gentle trae- tion at each end of the uding ends, each loop slip- ing away from the other: with perfoct without in any way disturbing the parts. Death by tetanus is caused by the cramps extending to the respiratory muscles and to the heart. It rarely occurs from loss of power in the brain or s cord, or from exhaustion. The course is & seute, the tetanie symptoms ensuing following order —Trismus, aaa in the muscles of back and neck, the oxtremities often remaining free. Most patients die before the tweifth day. readiness, and won Malical and Surgical Journas, with. Dt 3-6, Boston Medical a jou 3. VC. Emith. The new editor is an old hand st the editorial pen and scissors. Dr. sat a 44 san iilarks doe Royai ea a Cetares Society, In w! ives an acooun’ ome cases of rition, in which chloro! ‘was inhaled with pernicious effects, formed an interesting al in that bod; and commerce upon their | ome profession from the dominion of an ignomiaious | THE RIQHS OF NEUTRALS. | firsttime,an active Tivalry in the use of the seas, \ disgraceful practice. which, extending with the rapid); aims ‘The annual of mei | é idly enlarging | of Penaaylvania wilt %e ee Leesa fhe State | ame Memorial of the Charmer of Commaeree | colonial empire, soon involved the great piers yille, Tee, ee , sil die ditt WS tn ur RUPARUEWTATIVRS OP ae meres q dananae, comteay became now @ . Hamil ' the following directions for | rue UNITED ¢TATES oF aM, "®'CA IN conaREss as | Hadi ie en founa Be, the plints:—Three pounds of : occasion of the collision being often found hol, dissolved in a tin‘vewseh, furnished | SEMBLED: ocean, oe ee . cover to event eva or ie w woollen cloth on | solution, hang it up till it is thorough! again upon the board, and apply a second coat of the so- lution to one side only of the cloth; dry again, and spply a third coat to the same side. There will now be three | successive layers upon ono side and one on the opposite. | While the last coat is yet fresh fold the cloth so that the side having three coats shall be applied to itself. Now, with a hot flat-iron smooth and press the surfaces together When it is cold a slight rubbing with sand paper makes it fit for use. It becomes a firm, almost unyielding board, but exposure to a moderate heat will make it pliant, so thet it can easily and accurately be adapted to any ‘sur- face. In Eu aspecies of cradle, without rockers, is much used for placing infants when prematurely born, or when imperfectly developed, and for whom a higher and stea- dier Nonupapninse is required than that of the atmos. phere. It is made of brass, and is every where double, a space being left between the two plates comprising it, with o , into which warm water may be poured, and others for drawing off when cool. A soft bed anda properly arranged canopy, when needed, complete the apparatus. ‘The fund raised in eblleceehie for the benefit of the insane, collected through the instrumentality of Miss Dix, bas, according to the statement of the superinten- dent of the hospital, furnished ossential advantages to the patients, such as the use of carriage and horses, musical instruments, polyorama: large dioptic magic lantern, with a number of slides, a small magic lantern, to be used in the wards, kaleidoscopes, books, engravings, globes, piano, and go forth, The color of the hair corresponds in intensity to that of the iris, as, for example, auburn with blue, and black with the darker tints. Nor are these relations at all con- fined to the human species, although expecially remark- able in the Albino, whose choraid is destitute of pig ment, and hair either very pale or entirely white. In many hairs the color is uniform or diffused. Most ani- mals have hairs of this kind; good examples, however, may be found in the short hairs from the faee of the haze, in the tapir, and yellow bear. The Medical Times and Gazette describes the wire gauze for bandages, splints, &., now employed. The material used is flattened copper or iron wire. The usual mode of application is first to obtain a pattern for tho splint, means of cartridge paper, and then carefully to cut sheet of gauze to the pattern, The splint further quires that the edges should be cut transversely at in- tervals, and the free edges covered with thin lead or adhesive plaster. Folds of linen, wet with water, are placed upon the limb underneath the splint, ani the whole apparatus is kept in position by rollers or tapes. A Jad, eight years of age, was brought to the Newcastle Infirmary in a ‘suffocating state, in consequence of a piece of broken glass having got into his windpipe during play. He was seen after admission, and it was found by the stethoscope, from the distinct ‘whistling sound, most evident below the cricoid, that the glass was impacted there, an he was immediately placed under the ladu- ence of chloroform. Tracheotomy was then performed, and the trachea slit downwards from the cricotl for about an inch, whena violent convulsive paroxysm of coughing expelled a piece of glass about half an inch long, with irregular edges, and about a quarter of an inch broad. The patient recovered without a bad symptom. In Berlin there are cight city physicians, whose duty it is to visit manufactories, workhouses, penal institutions, boarding schools, &c., to see that the inmates have com- fortable apartments and sleeping rooms, sufficient cloth- ing, and food of a proper quality; that they have their regular hours of recreation, and that they are not tasked, either in work or study, beyond their strength. In this matter our transatlantic brethren are somewhat ahead of us, though public sentiment and voluntary action here are stronger and better than legal enactments concerning such matters. A curious modico-legal case is reported in the Gazette des Hopitaue. It appears that the mistress of an oflicer— he being desirous of breaking up the connection—at their last proposed interview attempted to make him swallow a quantity of ammonia. A physician was sent for immediately, who found the lips excoriated with phirctence, and the tongue swollen and deprived of its epithelium, and the mouth and palate abraded; the throat was so painful as to prevent swallowing, and pres- sure on this and the region of the esophagus was very painful. The jury acquitted the female as to the charge of poironing, but convicted her on that of causing wounds which incapacitated the sufferer for twenty days, und she was sentenced to imprisonment for two years. In Dr. Earle’s valuable work, descriptive of the European asylums for the insane, and’ in which their merits are compared with those 'in our own country, the author says that ‘in the most important point of all—if refer- ence be had to curative treatment, or the quietude, order and hygienic condition of the patients—that of manual employment for are superior. The ra- dical source of thi ity lies, undoubtedly, in the education of the people nature of the political government under which they live. Obedience to autho- rity becomes, by education, more a matter of principle or of habit. ‘Furthermore, the asylums are more inde- pendent than ours, and the retention and management of the patients more optional with the officers.”” The new State Lunatic Hospital in Taunton, Maas. and which has been constructed on the most approved modern principles, is now ready for the reception of patients. M. Raoul Deslongehamps has communicated to the Sur- gicn) Society of Paris a case of aneurism of the suborbi- tal ortery treated with success by ees of loride Stordtig prefey_treny palastions, lacebvonvus Witt the affording ty strong ions, ronous with the heart's action. This tumor, for the cure of which com- pression had been used without effect, disappeared com- Pletely by means of ‘he injection, after proseating some infismmatory symptoms, which easily yielded to anti- Phlogistic treatment. Dr. Shattuck, who lately deceased in Boston, bequeath- ed the third of the income of certain manufacturing stocks for three years to the Massachusetts Medical So- iety, of which lie was formerly the President. This do- stated. The London Lancet says that M. Morlanne, of Mutz, has just made public that he produced three regalar vaccine pustules, which appeared on tho fourth day, by merely placing some vaccine matter on the arms of two children, and robbing up and down the spot with tho sharp end of an ivory paper knife. He led to try the experiment from reccllecting the fact of young girls taking the cow- pock on the fingers used for milking. In Dr. Dowler’s pamphlet on the yellow fever, he makes the assertion that congenital city creolism, that is, the constitutional modification incidental to the bei born of creole, or thoroughly creolized parents, with continuity of city residence, exempts the individual from yellow fever, with nearly the same uniformity that Vaccination prevents the smallpox or varioloid. The Intter is modified smallpox, happening to one who has undergone vaccination or the smallpox previously, the fre y.cney of which is probably as great as the frequency of ) .ilow fever among city creoles who have never ab- sented themselves one or more winters in northern cli- mates. The trcatment of rheumatism by nitrate of potash has been successfully practised by Dr. Rowland, an English physician. In respect to the form of the disease in which the salt is most likely to beneficial, Dr. C.’s expe- rience confirmed him in the opinion that in acute rheu matism its efficacy is most remarkable, the beneficial result being even more striking in proportion to the ac: tivity of the attack. When subacute rheumatism super vened upon the chronic, although the nitrate was com- monly efficient in removing exercise no influence over the latter. Pains of a gouty tencency are also remedied by this means The Dublin Quarterly Journal refers to the viows of Dr. R. J. Graves, F.B.S., respeeting the treatment of cer- ta‘n forms of cutaneous disorder, especially the necessity of protecting the abraded and tender surface of the akin, the cutis vera, from the contact and action of the ait and other hurtful agents, The effect of blood congula- ting over a cut or al ficial, and not less serviceable are those secretions which are furnisheé ba surfaces abraded and ina state of in. flammation. The premature and foreible removal of all these discharges, which are to be as natural coverings, = injurious, tending to continue in. flarmmation and t healing ficial substitutes cial coverings over them, may be useful in effecting the hesling Of this nature are solutions of collodion, which have been in use for same time, and wore recently, solu tions of gutta percha in chloroform, with beneficial re- sulte The late Dr. Archibald Welch, of Connecticut, was not more distinguished in his profession for skill than for conseientiousness. In bis addrees at Yale College, he says —‘ Clandestine practice, whatever the motive may be fer its adoption, should never be tolerated. If there shall be a refusal to comply with your directions, it will be your duty to abanden the remedy, although it may be ihe only one on which you may rely, for you wili not be at liberty to sacrifice truth to save the life of the most eminently useful individual on earth. According to the statement made by a Boston paper there have been more than three red cases of amall pox ané varioloid in that city since December last, of which number about thirty have died. Arinc Siaves To Escare.—Washburn Ashby poration. Spread a & board, and with a clean brush saturate both sides of the cloth with the | dried, lay it nation will probably amount to $10,000 in the time | the former, it svemed to | surface ia known to be bene- | De. Gethinke that acti. | for these secreted coverings, or artifi- | Your memorialists beg leave ray, Octfully to repre sent to you honorable body, that ‘hey regurd the resent ‘time as peculiarly tuyorable x", ‘ion of treaties with the great Powers o which the rights of neutrals shall be re established on a footing more favorabl: hitherto been admitted. to this conclusion by the fact that the governmeny ° France (one of the great parties in the existing war) has heretofore admitted and advocated the that free ships make free goods, that Russ’ ‘ ized the principle by the armed neutrality of 1780, and the recent proclamation of Queen Victoria justly encourages the expectation that the government of Great Britain will meet the proposal with more than ordinary favor. England in the present war, from the urgent want of the y 8 of Russia, would find a convenience in an indirect trade with that country, carried on under the neutral flag, a con- venience quite equivalent to the benetit which Russia would derive from the export of these pro- ductions. By conceding to neutrals a carrying trade, which lessens the pressure of war on private property, : renders neutrality profitable, the continuan f that neutrality Would be better insured, and its strict maintenance be better promoted. ot Your memorialists believe that in this, or any war likely to exist, the value of enemies’ property found in neutral ships, and condemned as such, would be a small object compared with the danger of provok- ing a war with the neutral powers which a detention of such property would hazard. It involves that act of war most liable to miscon- struction and abuse, the right of search; not to be expected to be relinquished without yielding up the principle of capturing enemies’ goods in neutral ships; and not to be exercised without a certainty of abuse, and a probability of provoking additional wars. Especially do your memorialists believe that the preeent belligerents would not volunta’ ncrease the too probable hazard of a war with America on this point. Your memorialists are of opinion that a period has arrived in the history of the world, when war can be carried on with efficiency without mate- rially interrupting the commercial intercourse of nations, except when the operations of war require 2: ie ty the blockade of ports. The belligerent powers 1d generally find a great convenience in the un- ted commerce of neutrals; and the great movements of war, both by land and sea, would not bee rassed by it. The belligerents would con- { the force of their arms, and the strength of fleets, while the people of’ their respective na- us would be less restricted in the ordinary pur- | suits and enjoymeuts of life, The misery inflicted | on individuals by the interruption of maritime | trade, should be equally a subject of abhor: | the confiscation or destruction 0, the property 1 | dividuals on land. It adds little to the powgr of | war, but adds greatly to its calamities, and the pro- | gress of civilization and humanity demands that the | evils of war should be mitigated by every possible | means. | Your memorialists believe that the Government of | the United States could, in the existing war, exert a powerful influence in bringing about a more full re- | cognition of neutral rights, end in placing the com- | merce of neutrals on a footing much more favorable | than has heretofore been allowed. Your memorial- | i ‘e the fact thatthe Grand Sultan first practically carried out the principle that tree ships make free goods. France, Sweden, and Hol- land adopted pe peincips by their treaties of 1778, 1782, and 1783, Russia and the Northern Powers asserted it by the armed neutrality of 1780; and the United States in all their treaties with the maritime states of this continent, have adopted the same prin- | ciple. The parties of the present war, and indeed the maritime powers of tie world, have favored the rinciple, and England alone has hitherto opposed its universal adoption. Your memorialists beg leave further to cali the at- tention of your honorable body to the subject of the suppression of the use of privateers in maritime war. This power of annoyance by the weaker maritime power is one which cangot fail to be felt by England and to be greatly objectionable toher. To obtaina full acknowledgment of the principle of neutral rights above presented it net well be conceded by the United States that the fitting out of privateships of war should be interdicted. Your memorialists believe that the government of the United States could exert a powerful influence among the maritime nation on this subject, and that by means of treaties with the leading powers the evil might be removed. In the event of a war in which the United States should be engaged, they would be able, from the structure of theirships, and the habits of their seamen, and the extent of their coast, to send | abroad a larger force of privateers than any otherna- tion, not even excepting Great Britain. “This well- known fact would give to this government a great influence in negotiations to be opened for their sup- pression, for they could offer an equivalent for what should be relinquished to them. Your memarielists are well aware that if priva- teers were suppressed, the United States would lose «ne powerful means of aundying their enemies in time of war, especially it that war should be with a nation of widely extended commerce; while on the other hand, they would be strengthened in their navy by the brave and enterprising seamen who | however, would be exerted chiefly in the destraction of property not pertaining to the government of the enemy, but to individual merchants and othera,who, in this way, may suffer distressing and ruining | losses. On the other hand, in waiving, by treaty, | this mode of destruction of enemies’ property, the | merchants of the United States would be ‘saved | from enormous losses by the privateers of the enem, | thus restrained by treaty; and from the widesp: | commerce of America, covering every ocean, they | are in this respect more exposed than any other na- tion in the world. Your memorialists have not dwelt upon the demo- ralizing tendency of the privateering system, which | is, in otherwords, an authority to plunder at discre- tion, from the love of gain. This needs only to be | alluded to, and as to which no doubt can rest in the | mind of any man; and they have not brought to view the licensed piracy which has so often depre- dated on merchant ships, under the cover of com- issions granted by belligerent Powers to foreign- | ers. This glaring evil would be at once removed, if by beaed.toon' ty ded leading maritime Powers priva- | teering should be suppressed. | Your memorialists beg leave to pew to your | consideration the treaty negotiated by Franklin on the part of the United States with the Prussian gov- ernment, in the year 1785, as evidence that in the early part of this nation the suppression of priva- | teers was a subject regarded as of great importance. Your memorialisis tharefore pray that the sub- | Jects herein presented may, in the interests of com- | Merce and fomanity, receive your favorable consi- deration, and such action from your honorable body as shall not only relieve neutrals from the harsh and prevent honorable war from being assimilated to piracy and private plunder and lessen the horrors of war in the eyils which it inflicts on peaceful com- merce. By order of Chamber of Commerce. P. Perit, President. Epwarp C. Bogert, Secretary. New York, April 29, 185: igin of the Question of Neutral Rights, CUAPTER IL. Spanish Policy of Colonial Neutrality—English Treaty with Holland in 6 Restr m upon Neutrals in the War of 1089-97—War of Spanish lle Treaty of 1729—Search of Eng- cls by Spain and France—War of 17 he Rule of 1766—Treaty of England and Holland in 1764. The commencement of another general European ar has revived the necessity anticipated at the e of i815—but which it was scarcely hoped could Succession —Se WV government of the United States to the vexed ques- tion of the rights of neutral trade. During a quietude of nearly for ars duration, in which American | ‘an has Your memorialists a !¢d would otherwise man the privateers. This power, | dangerous right of capture and of search, but also | long deferred—of a perforce recurrence by the | Spain was, above all other kingdoms, e: te suffer in these contests, from the extent of her colo- nies and the value of the trade with them. Spain was, therefore, long a principal object of attack to the other powers, especially England, who, insti- gated the desire of plander, persistently culti- y relations with that kingdom, and with such suecess that for a century or more nothing better then nominal peace snbsisted between them, A lish war was at any time popular in vided there was no ‘immediate fear of 8) ower, Which did, once or twice, make the island | | | ki ingdom éemble for tence : Impunity was the only justi.'cation required. Buelish writers admit that their government wa eering power late asthe I the great Hlizabeth, ve colonial trade from these: predations, Spain conceived the policy of estab sing a general colomial neutrality. She suc then, as al of all nations in alt dey list ft in 1645, in effecting a treaty with Holland, long afterwards, the most libers matters pertaining to trade and navigation—s libe- rality forced upon her by her situatio: side debarring them trade with eac sions in time of peace, ayy bea of their colonies from attack in case of war between the contracting parties. Port made the next treaty of this kind, also with [ol- land, in 1661, Of course it was some time before England could be induced to become a party to suck, an arrangement. While her colonies were few, weak, and unproductive, that tender parent was in no wise inclined to purchase their immunity from the evils of wars they had no hand in making, at the ex, of her privilege to plunder the islands and provinces of the other Powers. But the colonies attaining at Jength some consequence, and promising much more, and having herself lately reached the danger- ous eminence in the hostile disposition of Europe, of uniting Holland, France,and Spain in a war her, and getting, also, perhaps, something of her character in Europe as a piratical nation, clocedup one of her wars, in the reign of Charles II. n—which, be- h other’s posses guarantied the mutual f by « treaty, in which the terms of the Spanish treaty with the Netherlands were copied verbatim. Holland had, at this time, become the great car- vier in the trade between the different nations of Europe; and more for the purpose of injury to her commerce, which it had been the object of several ineffectual wars to destroy, than from any expecta- tion of effect upon a belligerent, her rights as a neu- tral had been invaded. That republic asserted the right of a free use of the seas, and of unmolested | trade with all Powers that were inclined to admit | her ships into their ports. This claim was one occa- | sion of a war, breaking out in 1672, in which Charles | Il. allied with the powerful French monarch, Louis X1V.,to crush out the nation of traders. The little re- public held up with glory against thisstrong coalition; | and Charles, after a contest of two years, was glad to get out of it by a separate treaty, conceding to the Dutch their full demand of the right, when a | Beutral power, to trade freely with any and allof the | enemies of England. Another treaty, explanatory | of this provision, concluded at the Hague in Decem- ber, 1 re-affirmed the concession in the most broad and explicit terms. Thus did the first bere | | made by England, regarding the rights of neuti | nations, embrace the most complete acknowl | ment of the principle that neutral trade is perfec! ; exempt from pellets restriction. The stipulae | tion was, indeed, afterwards violated, under pretence | of et article attached to the treaty, nulli | the graat, by the prohibition to either party of ai | of any kind, directly or indirectly, to the enemies of | the other.’ A proper interpretation, certai | would not consider the word as referring to le | mate trade. The articles were easily harmo | where there was a wish to make them » and ‘such the English had at the time of making the | treaty, being exceedingly anxious fora peace. The | later understanding, assumed on their part, render- ed the whole treaty a farce. ‘ | _ In 1686, James II., King of England, and Louis. XIV., made a treaty, interdicting to each other's | subjects the trade of their respective colonies im | peace, and providing for the neutrality of the cole- nies in war. | In 1689, William of Orange, who had so success fully maintained the late war on the partof having expelled his father-in-law from the | throne, undertook to confirm himself in his new seat ' by another war upon Louis, who had embraced the cause of the fugitive James. In this contest, land, Holland, Germany and Spain were combined against France—all the great co | powers being thus involved. The strength of the coalition incited them to the audacity of prohibiting | all potentates trom the permission to their subjects | of trade with France, under penalty of confiscation | of ship and merchandise. The colonial neutrality | stipulated in the treaty of 1686 fell through at once on the commencement of the war. The colonies were obliged to transfer a part of | trade in provisions, horses, lumber, &c., from the French to the neutral West India islands, and suf- | fered badly in the loss of their ships by the French | privateers fitted out their trade. As usual ! in the confederacies of several nations against one, | the allies came out of the war without anything to | beast of—in fact, rather humbled. The contest end led a the treaty of 1697, at Ryswick, in whiolr | mi ig appears to have been said about neutrak | trade. war of Between 1702 and 1713 occurred the et | the Spanish Succession, in which nearl: of Bu | rope was involved, ly a power of the least com sequence being omitted. Insuch a contest the righte of neutrals were utterly of no account, and in the i sompenty of treaties by which it was finished, at } Utrecht, the subject seems to have been deemed un- worthy attention. In 1729 occurred the famons treaty of Seville, tm which Great Britain, France and Spain made s. ' league for , union, mutual defence and the im | terests of their commerce, {nt x = —s of the ge against whatever pretence, by any other Each | party to the contract engaged to trian toward she general object 8,000 foot and 4,000 horse, or am | equivalent in ships, transports or money. | After the peace of Utrecht, notwithstanding the: | renewal at that time of the interdiction of inter- | course with each other’s colonies, a great contraband | traffic had grown up between England and her cola- nies and the Spanish West Indies. Spain allowed some very limited trade to those parts, as the condi~ | tion of which she demanded the right of search for | contraband Usps privilege which the English had conceded by treaty. But the garda-costas ex- ercised their functions so efficiently that the com | trabandists were likely to find their occu; en- | tirely suppressed, and certainly, in so doing, mage | have considerably damaged the legitimate trade of | the English. Thereupon England, in 1739, | war against Spain, ostensibly to protect her trade, but really to force Spain to allow her to com- tinue the exceedingly profitable operation of smug- gling. She alleged as many pretexts as a bad cause tsualiy finds; but they were ouly pretexts. F' } the freedom of her navigation against that | as a leading cause, England declared war preeerved at this time either. The war the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, withor | the entire question at issue being in regard to their possessions in North America. In the very afterwards— That neutrals should be restricted | the same commerce with a belligerent ausump- on that “the neutral has no right, by the exten sion of his trade, to afford supplies to the belligerent | particularly directed, were Holland and upon, which France was | from which the supplies of naval | cived. Ancther ol ‘was to meantime, was practising the search of Ei | France also, in 1743, As the war had main retraction of her claim by France. , of the contest, the British Cabinet announced was allowed to them by that power in time to ward off the blow of his enemy.” ond other supplies essenti the entire import from ber West India Islends, upom il i I | vessels in the American waters; and to | ence to America, of course her neutrality | In war arose between England and F; | celebrated rule—the occasion of so much peace,” basing this new principle upon the against which this extraordinary int the war. It also affected all the Northern ‘ 4 ts " yj. 4 which resource the national exchequer was inalarge a white man, was yesterday, eccording to appointiae.> | ebips have enjoyed, in its utmost extent, the privi- { Wileh nara tee of the previous day. examined before the Mayor, ona | lege of a free navigation of the seas—the America From this time we have in constant view, and i Sate ot asa lieved. he hae bloat tketn | flag, wherever floating, affording the fullest prot a:- | process of continual unfoldment, the 9 is cape of several who have recently disappeared; bat the | tion to property and person—the difficulties “,eoa- | sues of be hh Gey tore ome Svrdebee 6: present cee et ee Veeonelusivo, or | stoned t y this subject in the earlier periods “of the | {i ceil a we Viss is pos Pon san arrosted at Rocket's stew Ligue nos inner | Government, seem to have faded from the. public | greshof human enightenment y ahed oie pany with several others, all fitted out with bundles of | recollection. It will not be inopportune, fgerefore, recognized poate. neutual as Coo et Oe Kanby ne mine reseipt was found in | 54 tne present moment, to give a gene fal history, pe gd Uipon former \dens? "Is the deaiak: Received gf Fi x Jackson, the juss and from the outset, of the various conten’ tons arising | ticn of belligerent privilege and of neutral 995, when Toll. bo rae pee iio nee from the assertion of belligerent clair, against neu- | #0 far as established in the law of nations, wy re . ‘ tral privilege, embracing an expos’, of the origin a tae bg oe Towne pe mes a daw r clare thi lerests ould FT od ranged ory ate A tg toe gry mie Ree ta sata aattor pich ban agitated | Gominant concern clays and hull rota pby:— Kurope itself, far more than ov ¢ own country, and paired, so faras ble, vantages rsa asain 00 aw, Youn, nS | has caf and more serlously, A ae pr } Ttveching to: a of peace? Is araonens 5 n :—I received yours, dated 7 “ glad te boat fepm zoe ns aes, Oe fo you se answer I | men of that continent than ‘( hay embarrassed our pata pens Bag Bh the bey tye gone denjatcl from you ou gat F, pageants hens" ot one cabinets. | tural position of the States engaged, and Sate aici s opoalat 3 Lei take theee or foot for The whole dtepute i6 * 546 of comparatively modern | ticular misfortune—should be regarded as p eed not, Leek, 0 origin, There could “seareely be any occasion for its et all d your ta 40, commer fureto 43 may pare right and wall, Ashby bra often been’ seen in tion wiih rome of the commit ‘ced, to be exami the the 6'in of May.—Ré alluded to. Ashby was Hastings Cour, 03 hee rota | occurrence In nC’ ent times, when commercial na- tiona were feW and wars were confined almost en- tirely to 10", operations, the flects of war vessels rometimes, gathered, not being used to pursue mari- time traders, or to assert a supremacy upon the feat, The colonization of America, giving a re- Torkable impulse to the maritime commerce of the countries therein ens aged-—all contiguous kingdoms Of We extzvmpe Wort of Barope—crente, for the them solely, so far as may be, to all the | ces and disabilities the condition involves? etrange thet a continent, assuming the, fact of | social progression the while, to be | offer i possible facilities and en a . by making the legitimate TST oaion pose | dinary desires of single “4 | them to become, all, ict ont th prof. : I eatral